Charak Samhita

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* Syzygium pseudojambolana Miq.
* Syzygium pseudojambolana Miq.
* Syzygium tenue (Duthie) N.P.Balakr
* Syzygium tenue (Duthie) N.P.Balakr


== Identification Characters & Botanical Profile ==
== Identification Characters & Botanical Profile ==
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== Phytochemical Composition ==
== Phytochemical Composition ==
The therapeutic versatility of ''Syzygium cumini'' arises from its rich secondary metabolite profile across the seeds, bark, and fruit pulp:
The therapeutic versatility of ''Syzygium cumini'' arises from its secondary metabolite profile across the seeds, bark, and fruit:
* '''Anthocyanins & Flavonoids:''' Abundant cyanidin glycosides, myricetin, quercetin, and kaempferol responsible for antioxidant capacity and deep purple pigmentation <ref name="Navya2026"/>.
* '''Anthocyanins:''' Anthocyanins responsible for the deep purple pigmentation are present in the fruit peel; their chemical nature, stability and bioefficacies have been characterized.<ref name="Veigas2007"/>
* '''Phenolic Acids & Tannins:''' High levels of ellagic acid, gallic acid, and hydrolyzable tannins contributing to prominent astringent and anti-diarrheal actions.
* '''Flavonoids & Phenolic Compounds:''' Fruit contains anthocyanin 3,5-diglucosides, dihydromyricetin diglucosides, myricetin glucoside and a galloyl-glucose ester.<ref name="Faria2011"/>
* '''Glycosides & Alkaloids:''' Presence of jamboline and jambosine, particularly in seed matrices, traditionally linked with carbohydrate metabolism regulation <ref name="IJCRT2025"/>.
* '''Glycosides & Alkaloids:''' The plant is rich in anthocyanins, glucoside, ellagic acid, isoquercetin, kaempferol and myricetin, and the seeds are reported to contain the alkaloid jambosine and the glycoside jambolin (antimellin), claimed to halt the conversion of starch into sugar.<ref name="Ayyanar2012"/>


== Pharmacological Activities & Therapeutic Efficacy ==
== Pharmacological Activities & Therapeutic Efficacy ==
=== Anti-Diabetic and Hypoglycemic Potential ===
=== Anti-Diabetic and Hypoglycemic Potential ===
Jambu seeds and pulp are widely recognized for managing metabolic irregularities and hyperglycemia.
Jambu seed is classically indicated in Madhumeha and is among the plants most often recommended as adjuvant therapy in type 2 diabetes.
* '''Mechanism:''' Active constituents inhibit carbohydrate-hydrolyzing enzymes ($\alpha$-amylase and $\alpha$-glucosidase), thereby delaying intestinal glucose absorption and improving insulin sensitivity.
* '''Mechanism:''' Not established; mechanistic data come mainly from animal and in vitro studies.
* '''Scientific Evidence:''' In vitro and in vivo studies confirm that standardized seed extracts significantly reduce blood glucose levels and suppress oxidative stress markers in diabetic models <ref name="Ismail2025"/>.
* '''Scientific Evidence:''' A review of 125 years of research found about 100 case reports from the pre-insulin era and many animal studies reporting some reduction of type 2 diabetes symptoms; however, a state-of-the-art clinical study is still missing, so efficacy in humans is not established.<ref name="Helmstadter2008"/>


=== Antioxidant and Free Radical Scavenging Action ===
=== Antioxidant and Free Radical Scavenging Action ===
The high concentration of polyphenols and anthocyanins provides powerful cellular protection against oxidative damage.
Polyphenols and anthocyanins in the fruit are considered responsible for antioxidant protection.
* '''Mechanism:''' Neutralizes reactive oxygen species (ROS) and enhances endogenous antioxidant enzyme systems.
* '''Mechanism:''' Scavenging of free radicals; the activity of the fruit skin may come partly from antioxidant vitamins, phenolics or tannins and anthocyanins.
* '''Scientific Evidence:''' DPPH, ABTS, and FRAP assays demonstrate strong free radical scavenging potential across fruit peel and seed polysaccharide fractions <ref name="Bhattarai2024"/>.
* '''Scientific Evidence:''' In vitro assays of fruit skin extract (hydroxyl radical, superoxide, DPPH scavenging, lipid peroxidation and total antioxidant capacity) demonstrated antioxidant activity.<ref name="Banerjee2005"/>
 
=== Gastroprotective Efficacy ===
The bark has prominent astringent properties and is classically used in Atisara; experimental evidence cited here concerns gastric mucosal protection.
* '''Mechanism:''' Tannins reduced free-radical concentration in the stomach after gastric injury.
* '''Scientific Evidence:''' In rats with HCl/ethanol-induced gastric mucosal damage, tannins (13.4% quantified) extracted from the bark significantly decreased gastric mucosal damage (p<0.01) on microscopic examination, indicating gastroprotective and anti-ulcerogenic effects.<ref name="Ramirez2003"/>


=== Gastroprotective and Anti-Diarrheal Efficacy ===
=== Anti-inflammatory Properties ===
The bark and seed extracts exhibit prominent astringent properties that stabilize gastrointestinal mucosa.
Jambu bark has shown anti-inflammatory activity in experimental models.
* '''Mechanism:''' Tannins precipitate mucosal proteins, reducing intestinal secretions and suppressing hypermotility.
* '''Mechanism:''' Probably inhibition of prostaglandin biosynthesis, related to the high tannin content of the bark extract (proposed, not proven).
* '''Scientific Evidence:''' Preclinical trials validate the efficacy of bark decoctions in controlling infectious and non-infectious diarrheal states <ref name="Navya2026"/>.
* '''Scientific Evidence:''' The ethanolic extract of stem bark showed anti-inflammatory activity in rat models of experimentally induced inflammation.<ref name="Muruganandan2001"/>


=== Antimicrobial and Anti-inflammatory Properties ===
=== Antimicrobial Properties ===
Jambu demonstrates inhibitory activity against several pathogenic bacterial strains and reduces acute inflammatory edema.
* '''Mechanism:''' Not established.
* '''Mechanism:''' Bioactive flavonoids and essential oils disrupt bacterial cell wall integrity and downregulate pro-inflammatory cytokines.
* '''Scientific Evidence:''' Seed extracts of ''Syzygium jambolanum'' were reported to have antibacterial and antifungal activity in vitro.<ref name="Chandrasekaran2004"/>
* '''Scientific Evidence:''' Disc diffusion and paw edema assays confirm broad-spectrum antibacterial efficacy against strains like *Staphylococcus aureus* alongside significant anti-inflammatory responses <ref name="Bhattarai2024"/>.


== Safety, Toxicity, and Dosage ==
== Safety, Toxicity, and Dosage ==
* '''Toxicity Profile:''' ''Syzygium cumini'' exhibits a strong safety margin in conventional culinary and therapeutic ranges.  
* '''Toxicity Profile:''' In rodents, an oral hydroalcoholic leaf extract caused no deaths up to 6 g/kg in mice and 2 g/kg in rats, and daily oral doses of 0.05–0.25 g/kg for up to 180 days caused no deaths or behavioural changes and normal organ histology; some biochemical changes occurred, and male rats at the highest dose did not gain weight from the 15th week. Intraperitoneal administration was toxic (LD50 0.489 g/kg in mice). These data are from leaf extract; equivalent data for seed and bark were not found.<ref name="Silva2012"/>
* '''Precautions:''' Due to its strong astringent and Vata-aggravating tendency, individuals with chronic dryness or specific renal conditions (such as *Ashmari*) should exercise caution.
* '''Precautions:''' Classical texts describe Jambu as Vata-aggravating (Su. 25/40) and unwholesome in Ashmari (Chi. 26/76); see the Charak Samhita reference table above.
* '''Standard Therapeutic Dosage:'''  
* '''Standard Therapeutic Dosage:'''  
** *Seed Powder:* 3–6 g daily.
** *Seed Powder:* 3–6 g (see Dose above).
** *Stem Bark Decoction:* 10–20 g.
** *Stem Bark Decoction:* 10–20 g (see Dose above).


== Summary of Therapeutic Profile ==
== Summary of Therapeutic Profile ==
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|-
|-
| '''Diabetes Mellitus (Madhumeha)'''
| '''Diabetes Mellitus (Madhumeha)'''
| Jamboline, Ellagic acid, Flavonoids
| Seed constituents (jambolin, reported)
| $\alpha$-glucosidase inhibition, Hypoglycemic
| Hypoglycemic (historical reports, animal studies; clinical evidence lacking)
|-
| '''Gastric Mucosal Injury (Atisara – classical use)'''
| Bark tannins
| Astringent, gastroprotective (animal)
|-
|-
| '''Diarrhea & Bleeding Disorders (Atisara / Raktapitta)'''
| '''Oxidative Stress'''
| Hydrolyzable tannins, Gallic acid
| Anthocyanins, phenolics
| Astringent, Mucosal protectant
| Free radical scavenger (in vitro)
|-
|-
| '''Oxidative Stress & Inflammation'''
| '''Inflammation'''
| Anthocyanins, Myricetin
| Bark tannins
| Free radical scavenger, Anti-inflammatory
| Anti-inflammatory (animal)
|-
|-
| '''Microbial Infections'''
| '''Microbial Infections'''
| Essential oils, Phenolic compounds
| Seed extract constituents
| Antibacterial membrane disruption
| Antibacterial, antifungal (in vitro)
|}
|}


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{{Reflist|refs=
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name="API">Anonymous. The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India. Department of Ayush, Ministry of Health and Family welfare, Govt. of India, New Delhi, Part I. 1986; Volume 2:26</ref>
<ref name="API">Anonymous. The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India. Department of Ayush, Ministry of Health and Family welfare, Govt. of India, New Delhi, Part I. 1986; Volume 2:26</ref>
<ref name="Navya2026">{{cite journal |last1=Navya |first1=H. C. |last2=Krupanidhi |first2=A. M. |last3=Dabadi |last3=P. |year=2026 |title=Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels: A comprehensive review of phytochemistry, pharmacology, and therapeutic potential |journal=World Journal of Pharmacy and Medical Science |volume=2 |issue=6 |pages=49–57}}</ref>
<ref name="Veigas2007">{{cite journal |last1=Veigas |first1=J.M. |display-authors=etal |year=2007 |title=Chemical nature, stability and bioefficacies of anthocyanins from fruit peel of Syzygium cumini Skeels |journal=Food Chemistry |volume=105 |issue=2 |pages=619–627}}</ref>
<ref name="IJCRT2025">{{cite journal |last1=IJCRT |year=2025 |title=Phytochemistry And Pharmacological Review Of Syzygium Cumini |journal=International Journal of Creative Research Thoughts |volume=13 |issue=8 |pages=1–10}}</ref>
<ref name="Faria2011">{{cite journal |last1=Faria |first1=A.F. |last2=Marques |first2=M.C. |last3=Mercadante |first3=A.Z. |year=2011 |title=Identification of bioactive compounds from jambolão (Syzygium cumini) and antioxidant capacity evaluation in different pH conditions |journal=Food Chemistry |volume=126 |issue=4 |pages=1571–1578 |doi=10.1016/j.foodchem.2010.12.007}}</ref>
<ref name="Ismail2025">{{cite journal |last1=Ismail |first1=K. |last2=Ahmad |first2=M. |last3=Zafar |first3=W. |year=2025 |title=Evaluation of In Silico, Antidiabetic and Antioxidant Properties of Syzygium cumini fruit Extract |journal=Journal of Pharma and Biomedics |volume=3 |issue=2}}</ref>
<ref name="Ayyanar2012">{{cite journal |last1=Ayyanar |first1=M. |last2=Subash-Babu |first2=P. |year=2012 |title=Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels: A review of its phytochemical constituents and traditional uses |journal=Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=240–246 |pmid=23569906}}</ref>
<ref name="Bhattarai2024">{{cite journal |last1=Bhattarai |first1=B. |last2=Khanal |first2=L. N. |last3=Kalauni |first3=S. K. |year=2024 |title=Antidiabetic and Antibacterial Activities of Syzygium cumini Seeds |journal=Journal of Nepal Chemical Society |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=153–162}}</ref>
<ref name="Helmstadter2008">{{cite journal |last1=Helmstädter |first1=A. |year=2008 |title=Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels (Myrtaceae) against diabetes – 125 years of research |journal=Die Pharmazie |volume=63 |issue=2 |pages=91–101 |doi=10.1691/ph.2008.7335}}</ref>
<ref name="Banerjee2005">{{cite journal |last1=Banerjee |first1=A. |last2=Dasgupta |first2=N. |last3=De |first3=B. |year=2005 |title=In vitro study of antioxidant activity of Syzygium cumini fruit |journal=Food Chemistry |volume=90 |issue=4 |pages=727–733}}</ref>
<ref name="Ramirez2003">{{cite journal |last1=Ramirez |first1=R.O. |last2=Roa |first2=C.C. Jr. |year=2003 |title=The gastroprotective effect of tannins extracted from duhat (Syzygium cumini Skeels) bark on HCl/ethanol induced gastric mucosal injury in Sprague-Dawley rats |journal=Clinical Hemorheology and Microcirculation |volume=29 |issue=3–4 |pages=253–261 |doi=10.3233/CHM-2003-599}}</ref>
<ref name="Muruganandan2001">{{cite journal |last1=Muruganandan |first1=S. |last2=Srinivasan |first2=K. |last3=Chandra |first3=S. |last4=Tandan |first4=S.K. |last5=Lal |first5=J. |last6=Raviprakash |first6=V. |year=2001 |title=Anti-inflammatory activity of Syzygium cumini bark |journal=Fitoterapia |volume=72 |issue=4 |pages=369–375}}</ref>
<ref name="Chandrasekaran2004">{{cite journal |last1=Chandrasekaran |first1=M. |last2=Venkatesalu |first2=V. |year=2004 |title=Antibacterial and antifungal activity of Syzygium jambolanum seeds |journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology |volume=91 |issue=1 |pages=105–108}}</ref>
<ref name="Silva2012">{{cite journal |last1=Silva |first1=S.N. |last2=Abreu |first2=I.C. |last3=Silva |first3=G.F.C. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The toxicity evaluation of Syzygium cumini leaves in rodents |journal=Revista Brasileira de Farmacognosia |url=https://www.scielo.br/j/rbfar/a/HcPwvtg7N5Yvgh578z4cbLq/}}</ref>
}}
}}


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