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Crocus sativus L.
{{#seo:
|title=Charak Samhita
|titlemode=append
|keywords= *Kumkuma, Crocus sativus L., saffron* Therapeutic use, herbs, researches on dravya, Charak Samhita, Dravyaguna, carakasamhitaonline, carakasamhita, caraka samhita, Ayurveda, Charak Samhita English translation, ancient Ayurveda text, Indian system of medicine, Charak, Charaka Samhita, agnivesha, atreya, gopal basisht, yogesh deole, charak samhita wikipedia edition, charak samhita new edition, research on charak samhita, text book charak samhita, fundamental principles of ayurveda, basic concepts of ayurveda,
|description= Kumkuma (Crocus sativus L.) is a classical Ayurvedic drug (saffron) used for vomiting, cough, wounds, skin and eye diseases and migraine; clinical and experimental studies report antidepressant, cognitive, anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive, antioxidant and antidiabetic effects.
|image=http://www.carakasamhitaonline.com/resources/assets/ogimgs.jpg
|image_alt=charak samhita
|type=article
}}
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crocus_sativus Crocus sativus L.]
 
{{Infobox
{{Infobox
|title = Kumkuma
|title = Kumkuma
Line 5: Line 15:
|data1 = Herb database/Kumkuma
|data1 = Herb database/Kumkuma
|label2 = Botanical name(s)
|label2 = Botanical name(s)
|data2 = Crocus sativus L.
|data2 = [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crocus_sativus Crocus sativus L.]
|label3 = Family
|label3 = Family
|data3 = Iridaceae
|data3 = Iridaceae
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|data4 = Available  
|data4 = Available  
|label5 = Contributors
|label5 = Contributors
|data5 = --
|data5 = [[Team Dravyaguna]]
|label6 = Year of publication  
|label6 = Year of publication  
|data6 =  2025
|data6 =  2026
|label7 = Publisher  
|label7 = Publisher  
|data7 =  [[Charak Samhita Research, Training and Skill Development Centre]]
|data7 =  [[Charak Samhita Research, Training and Skill Development Centre]]
Line 19: Line 29:
|data8  = Awaited
|data8  = Awaited
}}
}}
'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crocus_sativus Crocus sativus L.]''' (commonly known as '''Kumkuma''' or Saffron) is a perennial plant (Iridaceae) whose dried red stigmas form the spice saffron. It is used in [[Ayurveda]] in classical formulations and for the conditions listed below.


==English name==
==English name==
Line 24: Line 36:


==Therapeutic uses==
==Therapeutic uses==
Chardi (vomiting), kasa (cough), vrana(wound), vyanga, siroroga, Drushti roga(eye disease), kantha roga(throat disease), sidhma(skin disease), udavarta(upword movemnet of air), mutragraha,suryavarta,ardhava bhedak(migrain)<ref>Anonymous. The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India. Department of Ayush, Ministry of Health and Family welfare, Govt. of India, New Delhi, Part I. 1986; Volume 4 :25</ref>
Chardi (vomiting), kasa (cough), vrana (wound), vyanga, siroroga, Drushti roga (eye disease), kantha roga (throat disease), sidhma (skin disease), udavarta (upward movement of air), mutragraha, suryavarta, ardhavabhedaka (migraine)<ref name="API1986">Anonymous. The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India. Department of Ayush, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Govt. of India, New Delhi, Part I. 1986; Volume 4 :25</ref>


==Synonyms in Charak Samhita==
==Synonyms in Charak Samhita==
Kumkum, Ghusana, Kashmira(Grows in kashmir region), Vahlika(found in bahlika desa)
Kumkum, Ghusana, Kashmira (grows in kashmir region), Vahlika (found in bahlika desa)


==Synonyms in bhavprakasa nighantu==
==Synonyms in bhavprakasa nighantu==
Rakta(red in colour), Pitakam(imparts yellow colour if mixed with water) , varam,sankoch,pishuna(has got strong odour),shonitabhidhyam<ref>Pro. Krushnachandra Chunekar, Bhavaprakash Nighantu. Reprint Edition 2020, Chaukhambha Bharati Academy, karpuradi varga, verse no.-74</ref>
Rakta (red in colour), Pitakam (imparts yellow colour if mixed with water), varam, sankoch, pishuna (has got strong odour), shonitabhidhyam<ref name="Chunekar2020">Pro. Krushnachandra Chunekar, Bhavaprakash Nighantu. Reprint Edition 2020, Chaukhambha Bharati Academy, karpuradi varga, verse no.-74</ref>


==Types==
==Types==
Line 40: Line 52:


===Raja nighantu===
===Raja nighantu===
Mentioned 2 types<ref>Dr. Indradev Tripathi , Raja Nighantu of pandit Narhari, ed.2006, Chaukhambha Krishnadas Academy, Varanasi, Chandanadi varga verse no- 41,43</ref>
Mentioned 2 types<ref name="Tripathi2006">Dr. Indradev Tripathi, Raja Nighantu of pandit Narhari, ed. 2006, Chaukhambha Krishnadas Academy, Varanasi, Chandanadi varga verse no- 41,43</ref>
# Kumkuma
# Kumkuma
# Truna kumjuma
# Truna kumjuma
Line 47: Line 59:
===Kasmira===
===Kasmira===
* Suksmakesarayukta (Small stigma)
* Suksmakesarayukta (Small stigma)
* Raktavarna(Red in colour)
* Raktavarna (Red in colour)
* Padmagandhi(Aroma like that of lotus)
* Padmagandhi (Aroma like that of lotus)
 
===Bahlika===
===Bahlika===
* Sukla(White)
* Sukla (White)
* Pita varna(Yellow)
* Pita varna (Yellow)
* Ketaki gandha(aroma like pandans)
* Ketaki gandha (aroma like pandanus)
* Suksma kesara (Small stigma)
* Suksma kesara (Small stigma)
*
 
=== Parasika===
===Parasika===
* Madhugandha(Honey like odour)  
* Madhugandha (Honey like odour)  
* Isatpandura varna (Whitish in colour)
* Isatpandura varna (Whitish in colour)
* Sthulakesara(Bigger stigma)
* Sthulakesara (Bigger stigma)
 
 


== Ayurvedic pharmacological properties ==
== Ayurvedic pharmacological properties ==
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+'''Properties'''
|+'''Properties'''
|'''Sr.no.'''
|'''Pharmacological criteria'''
|'''Properties'''
|-
|-
|1
! Sr.no. !! Pharmacological criteria !! Properties
|Taste (rasa)
|-
|Pungent (katu), Bitter (tikta)
| 1 || Taste (rasa) || Pungent (katu), Bitter (tikta)
|-
|-
|2
| 2 || Potency (veerya) || Hot (ushna)
|Potency (veerya)
|Hot (ushna)
|-
|-
|3
| 3 || Post digestion effect (vipaka) || Pungent (katu)
|Post digestion effect (vipaka)
|Pungent (katu)
|-
|-
|4
| 4 || Qualities (guna) || Unctuous (snigdha)
|Qualities (guna)
|Unctuous (snigdha)
|-
|-
|5
| 5 || Actions (karma) || Pacify Kapha and Vata, imparts complexion to skin (varnya)
|Actions (karma)
|Pacify Kapha and Vata, imparts complexion to skin (varnya)
|}
|}


==Reference in Charak Samhita and its actions ==
==Reference in Charak Samhita and its actions ==
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+'''Herbs and their activities'''
|+'''Herbs and their activities'''
|'''Sr.no.'''
|'''Reference in Charak Samhita'''
|'''Activity'''
|-
|-
|1
! Sr.no. !! Reference in Charak Samhita !! Activity
|Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]] 23/54
|As an ingredient of Mrita sanjivani agada
|-
|-
|2
| 1 || Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]] 23/54 || As an ingredient of Mrita sanjivani agada
|Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]] 23/78
|As an ingredient of Mahagandha hasti agada
|-
|-
|3
| 2 || Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]] 23/78 || As an ingredient of Mahagandha hasti agada
|Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]] 23/190
|As an ingredient of Mamsyadi yoga
|-
|-
|4
| 3 || Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]] 23/190 || As an ingredient of Mamsyadi yoga
|Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]] 28/152
|As an ingredient of Bala taila
|-
|-
|5
| 4 || Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]] 28/152 || As an ingredient of Bala taila
|Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]] 28/162
|-
|As an ingredient of Amrutadi taila
| 5 || Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]] 28/162 || As an ingredient of Amrutadi taila
|}
|}


==Dose==
==Dose==
* 25-50 mg<ref>Anonymous. The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India. Department of Ayush, Ministry of Health and Family welfare, Govt. of India, New Delhi, Part I. 1986; Volume 4 :25</ref>
* 25-50 mg<ref name="API1986"/>


==Important formulations==
==Important formulations==
As per A.P.I.<ref>Anonymous. The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India. Department of Ayush, Ministry of Health and Family welfare, Govt. of India, New Delhi, Part I. 1986; Volume 4 :25</ref>
As per A.P.I.<ref name="API1986"/>
* Karpuradyarka
* Karpuradyarka
* Balarka rasa
* Balarka rasa
Line 132: Line 120:
==Current availability ==
==Current availability ==
Available
Available
* In India – Cultivated primarily in Jammu & Kashmir.
==Current researches ==
==Current researches ==
== Phytoconstituents ==
Saffron contains more than 150 volatile and aroma-yielding compounds. Only constituents supported by a checked reference are listed (one reference per class).
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Phytoconstituents of ''Crocus sativus''
! Class !! Constituents !! Property / role !! Reference
|-
| Apocarotenoids and monoterpene aldehyde || Crocin (crocetin glycoside), picrocrocin, safranal || Crocin gives colour, picrocrocin the bitter taste, safranal the odour and aroma. Crocin hydrolyses to gentiobiose and crocetin; picrocrocin hydrolyses to glucose and safranal. || <ref name="Srivastava2010">Srivastava R, Ahmed H, Dixit RK, Dharamveer, Saraf SA. Crocus sativus L.: A comprehensive review. Pharmacogn Rev. 2010;4(8):200–208.</ref>
|-
| Flavonoids || Kaempferol glycosides (major flavonoids of the flower) || Flower (tepals) || <ref name="Moratalla2019">Moratalla-López N, Bagur MJ, Lorenzo C, et al. Bioactivity and bioavailability of the major metabolites of Crocus sativus L. flower. Molecules. 2019;24(15):2827. doi:10.3390/molecules24152827</ref>
|}
== Pharmacological Activities & Therapeutic Efficacy ==
Findings below come from the cited studies only. Several are small pilot trials or animal studies, so they do not by themselves establish clinical efficacy.
=== Antidepressant Activity ===
In a 6-week pilot double-blind randomized trial of 30 adult outpatients with mild to moderate major depression, saffron stigma 30 mg/day was found to be similar in effect to imipramine 100 mg/day. Anticholinergic effects (dry mouth) and sedation were more frequent with imipramine. The trial had no placebo arm, and the authors call for a larger placebo-controlled trial.<ref name="Akhondzadeh2004">Akhondzadeh S, Fallah-Pour H, Afkham K, Jamshidi AH, Khalighi-Cigaroudi F. Comparison of Crocus sativus L. and imipramine in the treatment of mild to moderate depression: a pilot double-blind randomized trial [ISRCTN45683816]. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2004;4:12. doi:10.1186/1472-6882-4-12</ref>
=== Cognitive Function (Alzheimer's Disease) ===
In a 16-week double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of 46 patients with probable mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease, saffron 30 mg/day produced significantly better cognitive outcomes than placebo on ADAS-cog and CDR (P = 0.04 for both). The authors describe it as short-term evidence and ask for larger confirmatory trials.<ref name="Akhondzadeh2010">Akhondzadeh S, Sabet MS, Harirchian MH, et al. Saffron in the treatment of patients with mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease: a 16-week, randomized and placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Pharm Ther. 2010;35(5):581–588. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2710.2009.01133.x</ref>
=== Anti-inflammatory and Antinociceptive Activity ===
In mice, aqueous and ethanolic extracts of saffron stigma and petal showed antinociceptive activity in the acetic-acid writhing test but not in the hot-plate test; naloxone partially blocked only the stigma aqueous extract. Only stigma extracts had weak to moderate effects in acute (xylene ear-oedema) inflammation, while in chronic (formalin paw-oedema) inflammation both stigma extracts and the ethanolic petal extract were active.<ref name="Hosseinzadeh2002">Hosseinzadeh H, Younesi HM. Antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects of Crocus sativus L. stigma and petal extracts in mice. BMC Pharmacol. 2002;2:7. doi:10.1186/1471-2210-2-7</ref>
=== Antioxidant Activity ===
In 20 human subjects (10 healthy, 10 with coronary artery disease) given saffron 50 mg twice daily in milk, lipoprotein oxidation susceptibility fell significantly over 6 weeks (healthy 66.4 to 38.3; CAD 76.0 to 48.8; P < 0.001), indicating an antioxidant effect. The study did not report lipid-lowering or clinical cardiovascular outcomes.<ref name="Verma1998">Verma SK, Bordia A. Antioxidant property of saffron in man. Indian J Med Sci. 1998;52(5):205–207.</ref>
=== Antidiabetic Activity ===
In alloxan-diabetic rats given 6 weeks of daily oral treatment, saffron methanolic extract (80 and 240 mg/kg), crocin (50 and 150 mg/kg) and safranal (0.25 and 0.5 ml/kg) significantly reduced fasting blood glucose and HbA1c and raised blood insulin, without significant changes in SGOT, SGPT or creatinine.<ref name="Kianbakht2011">Kianbakht S, Hajiaghaee R. Anti-hyperglycemic effects of saffron and its active constituents, crocin and safranal, in alloxan-induced diabetic rats. J Med Plants. 2011;10(39):82–89.</ref>
== Safety, Toxicity, and Dosage ==
* '''Human safety:''' The safety of saffron tablets has been evaluated in healthy volunteers.<ref name="Modaghegh2008">Modaghegh MH, Shahabian M, Esmaeili HA, Rajbai O, Hosseinzadeh H. Safety evaluation of saffron (Crocus sativus) tablets in healthy volunteers. Phytomedicine. 2008;15(12):1032–1037. doi:10.1016/j.phymed.2008.06.003</ref>
* '''Precautions:''' Toxic-dose thresholds and pregnancy risk were not confirmed in the sources checked, so none are stated here. Use within classical dose limits under professional guidance.
* '''Classical dose:''' 25–50 mg (see Dose above).
== Summary of Therapeutic Profile ==
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: left;"
|+ Evidence for ''Crocus sativus'' (see sections above for references)
! Indication !! Evidence type !! Principal finding
|-
| '''Mild to moderate depression''' || Human pilot RCT (n=30, 6 weeks) || Similar to imipramine
|-
| '''Mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease''' || Human RCT (n=46, 16 weeks) || Better ADAS-cog and CDR than placebo
|-
| '''Pain and inflammation (Siroroga/Vrana)''' || Mouse and rat models || Antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activity, extract-dependent
|-
| '''Oxidative stress / coronary artery disease''' || Human study (n=20, 6 weeks) || Reduced lipoprotein oxidation susceptibility
|-
| '''Diabetes''' || Alloxan-diabetic rats || Lower glucose and HbA1c, higher insulin
|}
== References ==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name="API1986">Anonymous. The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India. Department of Ayush, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Govt. of India, New Delhi, Part I. 1986; Volume 4 :25</ref>
<ref name="Chunekar2020">Pro. Krushnachandra Chunekar, Bhavaprakash Nighantu. Reprint Edition 2020, Chaukhambha Bharati Academy, karpuradi varga, verse no.-74</ref>
<ref name="Tripathi2006">Dr. Indradev Tripathi, Raja Nighantu of pandit Narhari, ed. 2006, Chaukhambha Krishnadas Academy, Varanasi, Chandanadi varga verse no- 41,43</ref>
}}
[[Category: Database of herbs and minerals | Herbs]]
[[Category: Database of herbs and minerals | Herbs]]
  This article is under development ..

Latest revision as of 06:29, 8 October 2026

Crocus sativus L.

Kumkuma
Section/Chapter Herb database/Kumkuma
Botanical name(s) Crocus sativus L.
Family Iridaceae
Availability Available
Contributors Team Dravyaguna
Year of publication 2026
Publisher Charak Samhita Research, Training and Skill Development Centre
DOI Awaited

Crocus sativus L. (commonly known as Kumkuma or Saffron) is a perennial plant (Iridaceae) whose dried red stigmas form the spice saffron. It is used in Ayurveda in classical formulations and for the conditions listed below.

English name

Saffron

Therapeutic uses

Chardi (vomiting), kasa (cough), vrana (wound), vyanga, siroroga, Drushti roga (eye disease), kantha roga (throat disease), sidhma (skin disease), udavarta (upward movement of air), mutragraha, suryavarta, ardhavabhedaka (migraine)[1]

Synonyms in Charak Samhita

Kumkum, Ghusana, Kashmira (grows in kashmir region), Vahlika (found in bahlika desa)

Synonyms in bhavprakasa nighantu

Rakta (red in colour), Pitakam (imparts yellow colour if mixed with water), varam, sankoch, pishuna (has got strong odour), shonitabhidhyam[2]

Types

Bhavaprakash nighantu

Mentioned 3 types

  1. Kasmira
  2. Bahlika
  3. Parasika

Raja nighantu

Mentioned 2 types[3]

  1. Kumkuma
  2. Truna kumjuma

Properties

Kasmira

  • Suksmakesarayukta (Small stigma)
  • Raktavarna (Red in colour)
  • Padmagandhi (Aroma like that of lotus)

Bahlika

  • Sukla (White)
  • Pita varna (Yellow)
  • Ketaki gandha (aroma like pandanus)
  • Suksma kesara (Small stigma)

Parasika

  • Madhugandha (Honey like odour)
  • Isatpandura varna (Whitish in colour)
  • Sthulakesara (Bigger stigma)

Ayurvedic pharmacological properties

Properties
Sr.no. Pharmacological criteria Properties
1 Taste (rasa) Pungent (katu), Bitter (tikta)
2 Potency (veerya) Hot (ushna)
3 Post digestion effect (vipaka) Pungent (katu)
4 Qualities (guna) Unctuous (snigdha)
5 Actions (karma) Pacify Kapha and Vata, imparts complexion to skin (varnya)

Reference in Charak Samhita and its actions

Herbs and their activities
Sr.no. Reference in Charak Samhita Activity
1 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 23/54 As an ingredient of Mrita sanjivani agada
2 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 23/78 As an ingredient of Mahagandha hasti agada
3 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 23/190 As an ingredient of Mamsyadi yoga
4 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 28/152 As an ingredient of Bala taila
5 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 28/162 As an ingredient of Amrutadi taila

Dose

Important formulations

As per A.P.I.[1]

  • Karpuradyarka
  • Balarka rasa
  • Kumkumadya taila
  • Mahanarayan taila
  • Pushyanug churna

Current availability

Available

  • In India – Cultivated primarily in Jammu & Kashmir.

Current researches

Phytoconstituents

Saffron contains more than 150 volatile and aroma-yielding compounds. Only constituents supported by a checked reference are listed (one reference per class).

Phytoconstituents of Crocus sativus
Class Constituents Property / role Reference
Apocarotenoids and monoterpene aldehyde Crocin (crocetin glycoside), picrocrocin, safranal Crocin gives colour, picrocrocin the bitter taste, safranal the odour and aroma. Crocin hydrolyses to gentiobiose and crocetin; picrocrocin hydrolyses to glucose and safranal. [4]
Flavonoids Kaempferol glycosides (major flavonoids of the flower) Flower (tepals) [5]

Pharmacological Activities & Therapeutic Efficacy

Findings below come from the cited studies only. Several are small pilot trials or animal studies, so they do not by themselves establish clinical efficacy.

Antidepressant Activity

In a 6-week pilot double-blind randomized trial of 30 adult outpatients with mild to moderate major depression, saffron stigma 30 mg/day was found to be similar in effect to imipramine 100 mg/day. Anticholinergic effects (dry mouth) and sedation were more frequent with imipramine. The trial had no placebo arm, and the authors call for a larger placebo-controlled trial.[6]

Cognitive Function (Alzheimer's Disease)

In a 16-week double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of 46 patients with probable mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease, saffron 30 mg/day produced significantly better cognitive outcomes than placebo on ADAS-cog and CDR (P = 0.04 for both). The authors describe it as short-term evidence and ask for larger confirmatory trials.[7]

Anti-inflammatory and Antinociceptive Activity

In mice, aqueous and ethanolic extracts of saffron stigma and petal showed antinociceptive activity in the acetic-acid writhing test but not in the hot-plate test; naloxone partially blocked only the stigma aqueous extract. Only stigma extracts had weak to moderate effects in acute (xylene ear-oedema) inflammation, while in chronic (formalin paw-oedema) inflammation both stigma extracts and the ethanolic petal extract were active.[8]

Antioxidant Activity

In 20 human subjects (10 healthy, 10 with coronary artery disease) given saffron 50 mg twice daily in milk, lipoprotein oxidation susceptibility fell significantly over 6 weeks (healthy 66.4 to 38.3; CAD 76.0 to 48.8; P < 0.001), indicating an antioxidant effect. The study did not report lipid-lowering or clinical cardiovascular outcomes.[9]

Antidiabetic Activity

In alloxan-diabetic rats given 6 weeks of daily oral treatment, saffron methanolic extract (80 and 240 mg/kg), crocin (50 and 150 mg/kg) and safranal (0.25 and 0.5 ml/kg) significantly reduced fasting blood glucose and HbA1c and raised blood insulin, without significant changes in SGOT, SGPT or creatinine.[10]

Safety, Toxicity, and Dosage

  • Human safety: The safety of saffron tablets has been evaluated in healthy volunteers.[11]
  • Precautions: Toxic-dose thresholds and pregnancy risk were not confirmed in the sources checked, so none are stated here. Use within classical dose limits under professional guidance.
  • Classical dose: 25–50 mg (see Dose above).

Summary of Therapeutic Profile

Evidence for Crocus sativus (see sections above for references)
Indication Evidence type Principal finding
Mild to moderate depression Human pilot RCT (n=30, 6 weeks) Similar to imipramine
Mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease Human RCT (n=46, 16 weeks) Better ADAS-cog and CDR than placebo
Pain and inflammation (Siroroga/Vrana) Mouse and rat models Antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activity, extract-dependent
Oxidative stress / coronary artery disease Human study (n=20, 6 weeks) Reduced lipoprotein oxidation susceptibility
Diabetes Alloxan-diabetic rats Lower glucose and HbA1c, higher insulin

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Anonymous. The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India. Department of Ayush, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Govt. of India, New Delhi, Part I. 1986; Volume 4 :25
  2. ↑ Pro. Krushnachandra Chunekar, Bhavaprakash Nighantu. Reprint Edition 2020, Chaukhambha Bharati Academy, karpuradi varga, verse no.-74
  3. ↑ Dr. Indradev Tripathi, Raja Nighantu of pandit Narhari, ed. 2006, Chaukhambha Krishnadas Academy, Varanasi, Chandanadi varga verse no- 41,43
  4. ↑ Srivastava R, Ahmed H, Dixit RK, Dharamveer, Saraf SA. Crocus sativus L.: A comprehensive review. Pharmacogn Rev. 2010;4(8):200–208.
  5. ↑ Moratalla-López N, Bagur MJ, Lorenzo C, et al. Bioactivity and bioavailability of the major metabolites of Crocus sativus L. flower. Molecules. 2019;24(15):2827. doi:10.3390/molecules24152827
  6. ↑ Akhondzadeh S, Fallah-Pour H, Afkham K, Jamshidi AH, Khalighi-Cigaroudi F. Comparison of Crocus sativus L. and imipramine in the treatment of mild to moderate depression: a pilot double-blind randomized trial [ISRCTN45683816]. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2004;4:12. doi:10.1186/1472-6882-4-12
  7. ↑ Akhondzadeh S, Sabet MS, Harirchian MH, et al. Saffron in the treatment of patients with mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease: a 16-week, randomized and placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Pharm Ther. 2010;35(5):581–588. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2710.2009.01133.x
  8. ↑ Hosseinzadeh H, Younesi HM. Antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects of Crocus sativus L. stigma and petal extracts in mice. BMC Pharmacol. 2002;2:7. doi:10.1186/1471-2210-2-7
  9. ↑ Verma SK, Bordia A. Antioxidant property of saffron in man. Indian J Med Sci. 1998;52(5):205–207.
  10. ↑ Kianbakht S, Hajiaghaee R. Anti-hyperglycemic effects of saffron and its active constituents, crocin and safranal, in alloxan-induced diabetic rats. J Med Plants. 2011;10(39):82–89.
  11. ↑ Modaghegh MH, Shahabian M, Esmaeili HA, Rajbai O, Hosseinzadeh H. Safety evaluation of saffron (Crocus sativus) tablets in healthy volunteers. Phytomedicine. 2008;15(12):1032–1037. doi:10.1016/j.phymed.2008.06.003
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